Lаst yeаr in science, my kid leаrned abоut gamma rays. He came hоme frоm school asking me about gamma rays and why they are harmful. I told him that gamma rays can cause [blank1] mutations that are repaired by [blank2].
The COVID-19 vаccines prоduced by Pfizer-BiоNTech аnd Mоdernа are mRNA vaccines. The mRNA contains only the information needed to build the spike protein of the virus SARS-CoV-2. It does not contain any of the rest of the viral genome. The spike protein is a protein found on the outside of the coronavirus. The vaccine gives human cells the information needed to build the spike protein so the immune system can be exposed to the protein without being exposed to the virus itself. This allows the immune system to learn to identify the spike protein and destroy the actual virus when it is encountered. What molecule's function is to bring the correct amino acid to the correct codon so that the amino acids are placed in the right order? [b] Suppose that the start of the mRNA for the spike protein that is in the vaccine is shown below (note that this is not the actual mRNA). mRNA sequence: 5' - A C C G U G A U G U C C G U C G C A ... 3'. Following the "rules" for reading mRNA, what will be the first four amino acids in the protein this mRNA codes for? [c] After using the cell to make copies of itself, the new viruses exit cells by entering the Golgi apparatus, where the viral envelope is fully assembled. The viruses are then packaged into vesicles that are transported to the cell membrane, where the viruses exit the cell. What is the normal function of this pathway that the virus is taking advantage of? (Note: this is an unusual way for viruses to exit a cell; most viruses don't use the Golgi the way SARS-CoV-2 does.) [d] The SARS-CoV-2 virus has single-stranded RNA as its genetic material. How does this compare to the genetic material used by prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? [e]